Upgrade to Himalayas Plus and turbocharge your job search.
Sign up now and join over 100,000 remote workers who receive personalized job alerts, curated job matches, and more for free!
For job seekers
Create your profileBrowse remote jobsDiscover remote companiesJob description keyword finderRemote work adviceCareer guidesJob application trackerAI resume builderResume examples and templatesAI cover letter generatorCover letter examplesAI headshot generatorAI interview prepInterview questions and answersAI interview answer generatorAI career coachFree resume builderResume summary generatorResume bullet points generatorResume skills section generatorRemote jobs RSSRemote jobs widgetCommunity rewardsJoin the remote work revolution
Himalayas is the best remote job board. Join over 200,000 job seekers finding remote jobs at top companies worldwide.
Upgrade to unlock Himalayas' premium features and turbocharge your job search.
Sign up now and join over 100,000 remote workers who receive personalized job alerts, curated job matches, and more for free!
Information Systems Professors shape the next generation of tech leaders, blending cutting-edge research with practical teaching in areas like cybersecurity, data analytics, and IT management. They bridge the gap between academic theory and real-world application, preparing students for dynamic careers while advancing knowledge in a rapidly evolving field. This role offers the unique opportunity to influence both future innovators and the direction of technology itself.
$84,380 USD
(U.S. national median for Postsecondary Teachers, May 2023, BLS)
Range: $50k - $150k+ USD (varies significantly by institution type, rank, and geographic location)
8%
faster than average (for Postsecondary Teachers, 2022-2032, BLS)
≈17,400
openings annually (for Postsecondary Teachers, BLS)
Doctoral degree (Ph.D.) in Information Systems, Computer Science, or a closely related field is typically required for tenure-track positions; Master's degrees may suffice for adjunct or lecturer roles.
An Information Systems Professor is an academic professional who educates students and conducts research in the field of information systems. This discipline focuses on how organizations use technology to manage information, optimize processes, and achieve strategic goals. They blend principles from computer science, business management, and organizational theory to prepare the next generation of IT leaders and innovators.
Unlike a pure Computer Science Professor who might focus solely on the theoretical and technical aspects of computing, or a Business Management Professor who might focus on organizational behavior without deep technical insight, an Information Systems Professor bridges these two domains. They teach students not just how to build systems, but how those systems integrate into business strategies, impact organizational structures, and solve real-world business problems, often specializing in areas like data analytics, cybersecurity management, enterprise systems, or IT governance.
Information Systems Professors primarily work in university settings, which include lecture halls, computer labs, and private offices. The work environment balances independent research and writing with collaborative teaching and committee work. While there is a standard academic calendar, the daily schedule can be flexible, allowing for deep work on research or course preparation outside of scheduled classes and meetings. Remote work is often possible for research activities, but teaching and departmental responsibilities typically require on-campus presence. The pace varies; it can be intense during peak teaching periods and more self-directed during breaks. The role involves significant intellectual engagement and collaboration with colleagues and students.
Information Systems Professors regularly use a variety of software for teaching, research, and administration. They utilize learning management systems like Canvas or Blackboard for course delivery and student interaction. For research, they employ statistical analysis software such as SPSS, R, or Python with libraries like Pandas and NumPy, alongside qualitative data analysis tools like NVivo. Database management systems such as SQL Server, MySQL, or Oracle are essential for practical demonstrations and research involving data. Presentation software like PowerPoint and collaborative tools such as Zoom or Microsoft Teams facilitate lectures and virtual meetings. They also work with specialized simulation software for IT project management or business process modeling, depending on their area of expertise. Cloud platforms like AWS or Azure are increasingly relevant for teaching and research in cloud computing and data analytics.
An Information Systems Professor shapes the next generation of IT professionals and researchers. The role demands a blend of deep academic knowledge, practical industry insight, and pedagogical expertise. Qualification structures prioritize a doctoral degree, typically a Ph.D. in Information Systems, Management Information Systems, or a closely related discipline, as this is the standard for tenure-track positions in most universities globally. However, variations exist based on the institution's focus.
For example, research-intensive universities (R1 institutions in the US) place a heavy emphasis on a strong publication record in top-tier academic journals. Teaching-focused institutions, such as liberal arts colleges or community colleges, might prioritize extensive teaching experience and curriculum development, sometimes accepting a master's degree with significant industry experience for adjunct or lecturer roles. Company size is not directly relevant here, but the 'industry sector' translates to the specific academic department (e.g., Business School, Computer Science Department), which influences the desired research areas and teaching specializations. Geographic regions also play a role; European universities often have more structured post-doctoral requirements, while North American institutions focus on the Ph.D. and early-career research output.
Formal education, specifically the Ph.D., holds paramount importance for this role, far outweighing certifications or bootcamps, which are generally considered supplementary. Practical industry experience is highly valued, particularly for teaching applied courses or bridging theory with real-world challenges. However, it rarely substitutes for the terminal degree in a tenure-track path. The skill landscape evolves with technology; professors must continuously update their knowledge in areas like AI, cybersecurity, cloud computing, and data analytics. This requires a balance between maintaining a broad understanding of the IS field and developing deep expertise in specific research niches. Misconceptions include believing that solely industry experience suffices or that teaching skills alone are enough; strong research capabilities are crucial for academic progression.
Becoming an Information Systems Professor involves a blend of academic rigor, research aptitude, and practical experience. Traditional pathways typically demand a Ph.D. in Information Systems, Computer Science, or a closely related field, which can take 4-6 years beyond a master's degree. Non-traditional routes, while less common for tenure-track positions, might include individuals with extensive industry experience and a master's degree who pursue teaching-focused roles or adjunct faculty positions.
Entry strategies vary significantly by institution type. Research-intensive universities prioritize a strong publication record and grant-writing potential. Teaching-focused colleges seek candidates with demonstrated pedagogical skills and a commitment to student mentorship. Geographic location also plays a role; major tech hubs often have more universities with larger IS departments, but competition can be intense. Breaking in requires understanding these nuances and aligning your profile with the specific needs of target institutions.
A common misconception is that only a Ph.D. guarantees a faculty position; while crucial for tenure-track, teaching-focused roles may offer flexibility. Networking with current professors, attending academic conferences, and seeking mentorship are vital. The hiring landscape values candidates who can bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application, often demonstrated through industry collaborations or real-world project integration into research and teaching.
Becoming an Information Systems Professor primarily requires advanced academic degrees, typically a Ph.D. in Information Systems, Management Information Systems, or a closely related field. These doctoral programs emphasize research, theoretical knowledge, and pedagogical skills. A Ph.D. generally takes 4-6 years to complete, involving intensive coursework, comprehensive exams, and a dissertation. Tuition for doctoral programs at public universities can range from $10,000 to $30,000 per year, while private university programs may cost $30,000 to $60,000+ per year. Many Ph.D. students receive stipends and tuition waivers through research or teaching assistantships, significantly reducing out-of-pocket costs.
While a Ph.D. is the standard, some institutions, particularly community colleges or teaching-focused universities, may hire professors with a Master's degree (e.g., MS in Information Systems, MBA with an IS concentration) combined with extensive industry experience. A Master's degree typically takes 1-2 years and can cost between $20,000 and $70,000. Online courses or bootcamps, while valuable for specific technical skills, do not serve as primary qualifications for a professorship. They can, however, supplement a professor's expertise in emerging areas or provide practical context for teaching.
Employer acceptance of credentials varies. Research-intensive universities almost exclusively require a Ph.D. with a strong publication record. Teaching-focused institutions might consider a Master's with significant professional experience. Continuous learning is vital, involving ongoing research, publication in academic journals, attendance at conferences, and staying current with industry trends and technologies. Practical experience complements theoretical knowledge, particularly for teaching applied courses. Accreditation by bodies like AACSB for business schools signifies program quality and is important for faculty hiring.
Compensation for an Information Systems Professor varies significantly based on several factors. Geographic location plays a crucial role, with institutions in major metropolitan areas or regions with a higher cost of living typically offering higher salaries to offset expenses. Demand for specific specializations within Information Systems, such as cybersecurity, data analytics, or AI, also commands premium compensation due to a shortage of qualified academics.
Years of experience, research output, and teaching effectiveness dramatically influence earning potential. A strong publication record in top-tier journals and success in securing research grants increase leverage for higher base salaries and retention bonuses. Total compensation packages often extend beyond base salary to include research stipends, summer teaching opportunities, consulting allowances, and robust benefits like health insurance, retirement contributions (TIAA-CREF), and professional development funds for conferences and training.
Industry-specific trends, such as the increasing demand for tech talent in the private sector, can drive up academic salaries as universities compete for top-tier faculty. Faculty with practical industry experience or a strong network for student placements often command higher pay. Remote teaching opportunities, while less common for tenure-track roles, can influence salary ranges, though most academic positions require on-campus presence. International markets also offer varying compensation structures, with U.S. salaries generally among the highest, particularly at research-intensive universities.
| Level | US Median | US Average |
|---|---|---|
| Assistant Professor of Information Systems | $105k USD | $110k USD |
| Associate Professor of Information Systems | $130k USD | $135k USD |
| Professor of Information Systems | $160k USD | $165k USD |
| Distinguished Professor of Information Systems | $195k USD | $200k USD |
| Endowed Chair in Information Systems | $240k USD | $250k USD |
The job market for Information Systems Professors shows steady growth, driven by the increasing integration of technology across all industries and the rising demand for skilled IT professionals. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics projects continued growth in postsecondary teaching positions, with Information Systems being a particularly strong area due to its direct relevance to technological advancements. Universities are actively seeking faculty who can prepare students for careers in emerging fields like business intelligence, cloud computing, and digital transformation.
Current trends indicate a high demand for professors with expertise in data science, artificial intelligence, machine learning, and cybersecurity within Information Systems departments. Institutions are also looking for faculty who can bridge the gap between academic theory and practical application, often requiring industry experience or a strong track record of collaborative research with businesses. Supply and demand dynamics are relatively balanced for general IS faculty, but a shortage exists for highly specialized areas, leading to competitive recruitment and retention efforts.
Future-proofing in this profession involves continuous engagement with new technologies and pedagogical methods. Automation and AI are unlikely to replace the role of an Information Systems Professor but will instead shift the focus of curriculum and research. Geographic hotspots for these roles include technology hubs and areas with strong business schools. The profession remains relatively recession-resistant, as the need for technology education persists regardless of economic cycles, making it a stable career path with evolving opportunities.
Career progression for an Information Systems Professor involves a structured path focused on research, teaching, and service. Advancement hinges on demonstrating significant impact across these three pillars. Progression often distinguishes between an individual contributor track, emphasizing research excellence, and a leadership track, which involves administrative roles like department chair or dean.
Factors influencing advancement speed include research productivity, grant acquisition, teaching effectiveness, and departmental needs. Specializing in emerging IS fields, such as AI, cybersecurity, or data analytics, can accelerate progression. Company size, in this context, translates to university type; research-intensive universities prioritize publications, while teaching-focused institutions emphasize pedagogical innovation.
Networking within academic conferences, securing competitive grants, and mentorship are crucial for career growth. Attaining tenure marks a significant milestone, providing job security and academic freedom. Lateral moves might involve transitioning to a different university or taking on a visiting professorship. Common pivots include moving into industry research roles or consulting, leveraging their specialized IS knowledge.
Conduct independent research, striving for publications in top-tier IS journals. Teach undergraduate and graduate courses, developing new curriculum as needed. Advise students on research projects. Participate in departmental committees and academic conferences.
Develop a strong research agenda with a clear publication pipeline. Prioritize securing external grants to fund research. Establish effective teaching practices and contribute to departmental service. Build an academic network within the IS community.
Ace your application with our purpose-built resources:
Proven layouts and keywords hiring managers scan for.
View examplesPersonalizable templates that showcase your impact.
View examplesPractice with the questions asked most often.
View examplesReady-to-use JD for recruiters and hiring teams.
View examplesInformation Systems Professors teach and research technology's role in business and society. This profession offers significant international mobility, with universities globally seeking expertise in areas like data analytics, cybersecurity, and AI. Demand remains high in developed and emerging economies alike as digital transformation accelerates worldwide. Navigating international academic systems requires understanding diverse regulatory frameworks and educational standards. Many institutions value international experience and publications. Professionals often pursue global opportunities for research collaboration, diverse teaching experiences, and career advancement. International certifications in specific IT domains, alongside a Ph.D., enhance global marketability.
Salaries for Information Systems Professors vary widely by region, institution type, and experience. In North America, particularly the US, assistant professors might earn USD 80,000-120,000 annually, while full professors at top-tier universities can exceed USD 180,000-250,000. Canadian salaries typically range from CAD 70,000-140,000 (USD 50,000-100,000).
European salaries show significant diversity. In the UK, a lecturer (equivalent to assistant professor) earns GBP 45,000-65,000 (USD 57,000-82,000), while a full professor might reach GBP 80,000-120,000 (USD 100,000-150,000). German professors typically earn EUR 60,000-90,000 (USD 65,000-98,000). Scandinavian countries offer competitive salaries, often with strong social benefits, ranging EUR 55,000-90,000 (USD 60,000-98,000). Purchasing power parity makes these salaries quite attractive given the cost of living.
In Asia-Pacific, Singapore and Hong Kong offer highly competitive salaries, often USD 80,000-150,000+ for experienced professors, reflecting their high cost of living. Australian salaries range AUD 90,000-150,000 (USD 60,000-100,000). Middle Eastern universities, particularly in the UAE and Saudi Arabia, frequently offer tax-free salaries from USD 70,000 to 150,000, often including housing allowances and repatriation benefits. Latin American academic salaries are generally lower, ranging USD 20,000-50,000, but offer a significantly lower cost of living. Experience, publication record, and research grants directly impact compensation globally. Benefits, including healthcare, retirement, and vacation, differ greatly; some countries offer generous public healthcare, while others rely on employer-provided private insurance.
International remote work opportunities for Information Systems Professors are limited but growing, primarily in adjunct or online program roles. Most full-time, tenure-track positions require on-campus presence for teaching, research, and university service. Some universities, however, offer hybrid models or fully online teaching contracts, allowing for more location flexibility. These roles might involve teaching specific online courses or contributing to distance learning programs.
Legal and tax implications of international remote work are complex, requiring careful consideration of dual taxation agreements and local labor laws. Time zone differences are a significant factor for synchronous online teaching and team collaboration. Digital nomad visas, while not directly designed for full-time professors, could apply to those taking on short-term or project-based remote academic work. Salary expectations for fully remote academic roles might differ from on-campus positions, potentially reflecting the ability to reside in lower cost-of-living areas. Institutions increasingly use platforms like Zoom and Microsoft Teams for global collaboration, and robust internet access is always essential.
Information Systems Professors typically require skilled worker visas or specific academic visas to work internationally. Common destination countries like the US (H-1B, O-1), Canada (LMIA-exempt work permits), UK (Skilled Worker visa), Germany (EU Blue Card, Researcher visa), and Australia (Subclass 482, Global Talent visa) have established pathways. These usually require a Ph.D. in a relevant field, a university job offer, and evidence of research or teaching experience. Credential recognition is vital; academic qualifications undergo evaluation to ensure equivalency with the host country's standards. Professional licensing is generally not required for university teaching but specific research roles might have unique certifications.
Application timelines vary, from a few weeks to several months, depending on the country and visa type. Many countries offer expedited processing for highly skilled professionals. Pathways to permanent residency often exist after several years of employment, with some countries like Canada and Australia having points-based systems that favor academic qualifications. Language requirements, such as English proficiency tests (IELTS, TOEFL) or local language tests (e.g., German, French), are common for non-native speakers. Most visa categories allow for dependent family members to accompany the primary applicant. Some countries offer specific fast-track programs for researchers or academics due to their economic contribution.
Understanding the current market reality for Information Systems Professors is vital for career planning. The academic landscape has evolved significantly from 2023 to 2025, influenced by post-pandemic shifts and the rapid advancement of artificial intelligence.
Broader economic factors, such as university budget allocations and student enrollment trends, directly impact faculty hiring. Market realities vary considerably by experience level—entry-level positions face intense competition—and by institutional type, from research-intensive universities to teaching-focused colleges. This analysis offers an honest assessment to help navigate these complex dynamics.
Competition for Information Systems Professor positions remains high, especially at tenure-track levels. Many institutions face budget constraints, limiting new faculty lines. While AI tools enhance research, they also increase productivity expectations, potentially reducing the perceived need for more faculty in some areas.
Strong opportunities exist for Information Systems Professors specializing in cybersecurity, machine learning applications, ethical AI, and business analytics. Universities actively seek faculty who can develop and teach cutting-edge courses in these high-demand areas. Emerging roles often involve interdisciplinary collaboration, bridging IS with fields like healthcare, finance, or supply chain management.
Professors who can demonstrate a strong research agenda incorporating generative AI or explainable AI, coupled with practical industry experience, hold a significant competitive advantage. Underserved markets, particularly regional universities or institutions with a strong focus on professional master's programs, may offer better opportunities than highly saturated research universities. Pursuing certifications in AI/ML or data science can enhance a candidate's profile. Strategic career moves might involve targeting departments undergoing curriculum overhauls or those with new funding for specific research initiatives, capitalizing on the ongoing digital transformation across industries.
Hiring for Information Systems Professor roles shows a bifurcated trend in 2025. Demand for faculty with expertise in emerging areas like AI ethics, cybersecurity, data analytics, and cloud computing remains strong. These specializations align with student interest and industry needs, driving universities to seek new hires in these fields.
Conversely, traditional IS areas, while still foundational, see less aggressive hiring. Many institutions prioritize faculty who can integrate generative AI applications, large language models, and automation into their curriculum and research. This shift reflects a broader employer requirement for graduates with practical, future-ready skills, pushing departments to update their faculty profiles.
Economic conditions and fluctuating enrollment numbers affect hiring stability. Some universities, particularly public institutions, face tighter budgets, leading to fewer new tenure-track lines and more reliance on adjunct or visiting faculty. Salary trends generally hold steady for specialized areas, but market saturation at the Ph.D. level means less bargaining power for candidates in less sought-after niches. Remote work normalization, while less common for full-time faculty, does influence candidate pools, as some professors explore online teaching roles at institutions outside their geographic area.
Technological advancements and evolving industry landscapes continually reshape academic fields, creating new specialization opportunities for Information Systems Professors. Understanding these shifts is crucial for career advancement and impactful research in 2025 and beyond. Early positioning in emerging areas allows professors to define new sub-disciplines, secure research funding, and attract top talent.
Specializing in cutting-edge areas often commands premium compensation and offers significant career growth. These roles frequently involve leading new curriculum development, establishing interdisciplinary research centers, and advising on strategic university initiatives. While established specializations remain vital, focusing on emerging fields provides a distinct competitive advantage and positions faculty at the forefront of innovation.
Truly emerging areas typically take several years to become mainstream, creating significant job opportunities as industry and academia recognize their importance. For Information Systems Professors, this timeline means that research initiated now can directly influence future curriculum and industry best practices. While there is inherent risk in dedicating resources to unproven fields, the potential for high impact and leadership within a new domain offers substantial rewards.
Understanding both the advantages and challenges of a career as an Information Systems Professor is crucial before committing to this demanding yet rewarding path. Career experiences can vary significantly based on the university's research focus, department culture, individual specialization within IS, and personal preferences. What one person views as a benefit, another might see as a challenge. For instance, the emphasis on research might be a pro for an academically inclined individual but a con for someone who prefers more teaching. This assessment aims to provide a realistic overview, helping prospective professors set appropriate expectations for the different stages of an academic career, from early-career tenure-track positions to senior professorships.
Information Systems Professors face unique challenges balancing rigorous academic research with effective teaching and university service. This section addresses the most common questions about pursuing this career, from navigating doctoral programs to securing tenure and maintaining a fulfilling academic life.
Becoming an Information Systems Professor typically requires a Ph.D. in Information Systems, Management Information Systems, or a closely related field like Computer Science or Operations Research with a strong IS focus. Most programs take 4-6 years beyond a bachelor's degree, including coursework, comprehensive exams, and dissertation research. Relevant industry experience, while not always mandatory, can be a significant asset for teaching and research.
The typical path involves completing a Ph.D., applying for assistant professor positions during the final year of the doctoral program, and then progressing through the tenure track. Securing a tenure-track position is highly competitive, emphasizing research potential, teaching ability, and service contributions. Postdoctoral fellowships are an option for some, but many move directly into assistant professor roles after graduation.
Salaries for Information Systems Professors vary significantly based on institution type (research-intensive vs. teaching-focused), geographic location, and rank. Assistant Professors can expect starting salaries ranging from $90,000 to $150,000+, with tenured full professors earning considerably more. These figures do not include potential consulting work or summer research grants, which can supplement income.
Work-life balance can be challenging, especially for pre-tenure professors. The role demands significant time for research, publishing in top journals, teaching multiple courses, advising students, and university service. While there is flexibility in daily scheduling, the overall workload often extends beyond standard 40-hour weeks, particularly during peak teaching or research periods. Research productivity is a continuous pressure.
Job security for tenured Information Systems Professors is high, but the path to tenure is rigorous and not guaranteed. The demand for IS faculty remains strong due to the increasing importance of technology in business, ensuring good prospects for qualified Ph.D. graduates. However, the number of available tenure-track positions can fluctuate with university budgets and student enrollment trends.
Career growth involves achieving tenure, then promotion to Associate and Full Professor. This progression hinges on sustained high-quality research, excellent teaching evaluations, and significant service contributions. Beyond this, opportunities include administrative roles (department chair, dean), leading research centers, or engaging in high-level academic consulting. Specialization in emerging IS areas also fuels growth.
A major challenge is balancing the
While some universities offer hybrid teaching models or allow for remote research collaborations, the traditional Information Systems Professor role is primarily campus-based. This includes in-person teaching, attending departmental meetings, and engaging in campus community life. Some research-intensive roles might offer more flexibility during non-teaching semesters, but full-time remote professorships are still rare in this field.
Explore similar roles that might align with your interests and skills:
A growing field with similar skill requirements and career progression opportunities.
Explore career guideA growing field with similar skill requirements and career progression opportunities.
Explore career guideA growing field with similar skill requirements and career progression opportunities.
Explore career guideA growing field with similar skill requirements and career progression opportunities.
Explore career guideA growing field with similar skill requirements and career progression opportunities.
Explore career guideUnderstanding where you stand today is the first step toward your career goals. Our Career Coach helps identify skill gaps and create personalized plans.
Get a detailed assessment of your current skills versus Information Systems Professor requirements. Our AI Career Coach identifies specific areas for improvement with personalized recommendations.
See your skills gapEvaluate your overall readiness for Information Systems Professor roles with our AI Career Coach. Receive personalized recommendations for education, projects, and experience to boost your competitiveness.
Assess your readinessLead significant research projects, often with collaborators or a research team. Teach advanced courses and supervise doctoral dissertations. Assume more responsibility in departmental governance and university-wide committees. Begin establishing a national reputation in a specific IS sub-field.
Expand research impact through consistent high-quality publications and significant grant funding. Mentor junior faculty and PhD students. Take on leadership roles in curriculum development and departmental initiatives. Seek opportunities for interdisciplinary collaboration.
Direct large-scale research programs, often serving as Principal Investigator on multi-year grants. Teach specialized seminars and assume a significant role in graduate education. Hold leadership positions on university committees or within professional organizations. Influence departmental strategy and curriculum.
Cultivate a world-class research profile, leading major research initiatives and securing substantial grants. Provide intellectual leadership to the department and university. Mentor multiple junior faculty and doctoral students. Engage in significant professional service for the academic community.
Recognized as a leading authority in Information Systems, nationally and internationally. Continues to produce influential research and attract substantial funding. Serves as a key advisor to university leadership on academic policy and strategy. Often holds a named professorship or contributes significantly to institutional reputation.
Achieve sustained, exceptional research output with profound impact on the field. Provide visionary leadership in IS research and education. Influence national and international academic discourse. Secure major research awards and serve on prestigious editorial boards.
Holds a prestigious endowed position, signifying exceptional scholarly achievement and leadership. Uses endowed funds to advance research, teaching, and service initiatives. Plays a pivotal role in fundraising, faculty development, and enhancing the university's standing in Information Systems. Represents the university as a thought leader.
Lead the strategic direction of a specific research area or academic program within the university. Secure and manage significant endowments for research and faculty support. Foster interdisciplinary collaboration and recruit top talent. Shape the future of IS education and research.
Learn from experienced Information Systems Professors who are actively working in the field. See their roles, skills, and insights.
Professor of Computer Science and Information Systems, mentoring researchers and building curriculum that improves student outcomes.
Experienced academic and programmer specializing in information technology.
Associate Professor and software developer experienced in web and database systems.
Experienced Associate Professor with expertise in IT, ML, DL, Bigdata and data analysis.
Experienced academic leader specializing in Computer Science and Data Analytics.
Academic director and cybersecurity specialist focused on training, incident response, and secure systems.
