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Astrophysics Professors ignite curiosity and push the boundaries of human knowledge, teaching the next generation of scientists while conducting groundbreaking research into the universe's most profound mysteries. This unique academic role combines the intellectual rigor of theoretical and observational science with the rewarding experience of mentorship, preparing students for careers in research, education, and technology. It is a highly specialized path requiring deep expertise and a passion for unraveling cosmic phenomena.
$99,040 USD
(U.S. national median for Postsecondary Physics Teachers, BLS May 2023)
Range: $50k - $180k+ USD (varies significantly by institution type, rank, and research funding)
9%
as fast as average for postsecondary teachers (BLS)
≈1,300
openings annually for postsecondary physics teachers (BLS)
Doctoral degree (Ph.D.) in Astrophysics, Physics, or a closely related field is universally required. Postdoctoral research experience is also essential.
An Astrophysics Professor is a distinguished academic who combines cutting-edge research in the study of the universe with the vital role of educating the next generation of scientists. They explore cosmic phenomena, from the birth of stars to the mysteries of dark matter and energy, using theoretical models, observational data, and computational simulations.
This role differs significantly from a research scientist in a national lab, who focuses exclusively on research without teaching duties, or a university lecturer, whose primary focus is teaching with minimal research expectations. An Astrophysics Professor balances these two core missions, contributing to both the advancement of scientific knowledge and the intellectual development of students, fostering a vibrant academic community.
An Astrophysics Professor primarily works in a university or research institution setting. Their time divides between offices for research and writing, classrooms or lecture halls for teaching, and specialized laboratories or observatories for data analysis and instrument work. Collaboration is central, involving extensive interaction with students, postdocs, and fellow faculty members. The work pace can be variable, with periods of intense research activity, grant writing, and conference travel balanced with regular teaching schedules. While much work occurs on campus, remote collaboration with international research teams is common, and some roles may involve occasional field work at observatories. The culture emphasizes intellectual curiosity, rigorous inquiry, and continuous learning.
Astrophysics professors regularly use advanced computational software like Python (with libraries such as NumPy, SciPy, and AstroPy), MATLAB, and IDL for data analysis, simulation, and modeling. They work with specialized astronomical data reduction pipelines and analysis tools for various telescopes, such as CASA for radio astronomy or IRAF for optical data. Access to high-performance computing (HPC) clusters is crucial for running complex simulations, often utilizing parallel programming frameworks like MPI or OpenMP. They also employ visualization software, LaTeX for scientific writing, and presentation tools. While not always directly operating, they utilize data from ground-based observatories (e.g., ALMA, VLT, Keck) and space telescopes (e.g., Hubble, James Webb, Chandra, Gaia).
Becoming an Astrophysics Professor requires a highly specialized and extensive qualification path, emphasizing deep theoretical knowledge, advanced research capabilities, and a commitment to scientific discovery. The primary focus for this role is original research, publication in top-tier journals, and securing competitive grants. Teaching and mentoring students also form a crucial part of the responsibilities.
Requirements for an Astrophysics Professor vary significantly by seniority and institution type. Entry-level Assistant Professors typically need a strong publication record from their Ph.D. and postdoctoral work, demonstrating independent research potential. Senior positions, such as Associate or Full Professor, demand a sustained record of significant research contributions, successful grant acquisition, and leadership in the field. Larger research universities prioritize extensive grant funding and high-impact publications, while smaller liberal arts colleges may emphasize teaching excellence and student mentorship alongside research.
Formal education, specifically a Ph.D., is an absolute prerequisite for this profession; practical experience, while important, is almost always gained within the academic research pipeline. Certifications hold little value in this field, as the Ph.D. serves as the ultimate credential. Alternative pathways into this role are virtually nonexistent; a rigorous academic trajectory is essential. The skill landscape continually evolves, with increasing emphasis on computational astrophysics, big data analysis, and interdisciplinary collaborations. For career progression, a balance between depth in a specific research area and breadth in foundational astrophysical concepts is critical.
Becoming an Astrophysics Professor requires a long-term commitment to advanced education and research, typically spanning over a decade. The traditional path involves earning a Ph.D. in Astrophysics or a closely related field, followed by multiple postdoctoral research positions. Non-traditional entry is extremely rare; almost all professors follow this rigorous academic track.
Timeline expectations vary, but generally, expect 5-7 years for a Ph.D., followed by 3-6 years across 1-3 postdoctoral positions before becoming competitive for a tenure-track faculty role. Geographic considerations are crucial, as most opportunities exist in universities with strong research programs, often concentrated in specific regions or countries known for scientific funding. Competition is intense globally, making networking and publishing high-impact research essential.
Common misconceptions include believing a Ph.D. guarantees a professorship; in reality, only a small fraction of Ph.D. graduates secure these positions. Success heavily relies on continuous research output, securing grants, and building a strong academic network. The hiring landscape is highly competitive, emphasizing a strong publication record, teaching experience, and the ability to secure external funding.
Becoming an Astrophysics Professor requires a highly specialized and extensive educational journey, primarily centered on advanced university degrees. A Ph.D. in Astrophysics, Physics, or a closely related field is universally required, followed by postdoctoral research positions. These doctoral programs typically take 5-7 years post-bachelor's, with tuition ranging from $15,000 to $50,000+ per year, though many Ph.D. students receive stipends or research assistantships that cover tuition and living expenses. Postdoctoral research fellowships, crucial for building an independent research portfolio, usually last 2-5 years and are salaried positions.
Alternative learning paths, such as bootcamps or self-study, do not lead directly to an Astrophysics Professorship. While online courses can supplement knowledge or prepare for graduate studies, they do not substitute for the rigorous research and teaching experience gained in a Ph.D. program. Employers, in this case, universities and research institutions, exclusively seek candidates with a strong publication record, demonstrated teaching ability, and a Ph.D. from a reputable institution. The academic job market is highly competitive, making a strong research focus and networking essential.
Continuous learning is paramount, involving staying current with cutting-edge research, attending conferences, and collaborating internationally. Practical experience through extensive research, grant writing, and teaching assistantships during graduate school is more critical than theoretical knowledge alone. Emerging educational trends include interdisciplinary programs that blend astrophysics with data science or computational methods, reflecting the evolving nature of the field. The cost-benefit analysis heavily favors the long-term investment in a Ph.D., as it is the only pathway to this career. There are no industry-specific accreditations outside of institutional academic standards.
Compensation for an Astrophysics Professor varies significantly based on several factors, extending beyond base salary. Geographic location plays a crucial role; institutions in high cost-of-living areas, particularly major research hubs, often offer higher salaries and better research funding opportunities. State funding models for public universities also influence pay scales, while private universities typically offer more competitive packages.
Years of experience, research output, and specialized expertise in fields like cosmology, exoplanetary science, or high-energy astrophysics directly impact earning potential. A strong publication record and successful grant acquisition are vital for career progression and salary increases. Total compensation often includes a robust benefits package, retirement contributions, and professional development allowances. Some positions, especially endowed chairs, may come with additional research funds or discretionary budgets.
Industry-specific trends, such as the availability of large-scale observational facilities or space missions, can drive demand for specific specializations. Remote work is rare for this role due to the need for on-campus teaching, lab supervision, and access to specialized equipment. International market variations exist, with salaries often differing from US figures, but US dollar values serve as a common benchmark for global comparison.
| Level | US Median | US Average |
|---|---|---|
| Assistant Professor of Astrophysics | $90k USD | $95k USD |
| Associate Professor of Astrophysics | $110k USD | $115k USD |
| Professor of Astrophysics | $140k USD | $145k USD |
| Distinguished Professor of Astrophysics | $175k USD | $180k USD |
| Endowed Chair in Astrophysics | $210k USD | $220k USD |
The job market for Astrophysics Professors is highly competitive, characterized by more qualified candidates than available tenure-track positions. Demand is driven by ongoing advancements in space exploration, astronomical observation, and theoretical physics. Growth in this field is slow and steady, with projections indicating a modest increase of about 3-5% over the next decade, primarily due to retirements and limited new program expansions.
Emerging opportunities lie in interdisciplinary research at the intersection of astrophysics with data science, machine learning, and quantum computing, particularly for analyzing vast datasets from telescopes like the James Webb Space Telescope or upcoming observatories. The emphasis on computational astrophysics and big data analytics is reshaping required skill sets, necessitating proficiency in advanced programming and statistical methods.
Supply often outstrips demand, making securing a permanent faculty position challenging. Most Ph.D. graduates initially pursue postdoctoral research positions before potentially transitioning to faculty roles. The profession is generally recession-resistant as university funding for core sciences remains relatively stable, though state budget cuts can occasionally impact public institutions. Geographic hotspots include university towns with major research institutions and national labs, such as those near NASA centers or large observatories. Future-proofing involves continuous learning in new computational techniques and adapting research to leverage new observational capabilities.
Career progression for an Astrophysics Professor involves a rigorous path centered on research, teaching, and service. Individuals typically begin on an individual contributor (IC) track, focusing on establishing their independent research program and teaching effectiveness. The progression from Assistant to Associate to full Professor is primarily driven by a demonstrated record of significant research output, successful grant acquisition, and impactful teaching and mentorship.
Advancement speed varies based on research productivity, the ability to secure competitive external funding, and the impact of scholarly contributions. Specialization within astrophysics, such as cosmology, exoplanets, or high-energy phenomena, allows for deep expertise, which can enhance visibility and funding success. Company size, in this context, refers to the university's research intensity and departmental resources, which influence the scale and support available for research. Networking, mentorship, and a strong reputation within the international astrophysics community are crucial for securing collaborations, peer review, and invitations to speak at conferences.
Lateral movement might involve transitioning between research-intensive universities or moving into leadership roles within academic administration, such as department chair or dean. Certifications are not typical; instead, progression is marked by major publications in peer-reviewed journals, successful Ph.D. student placements, and leadership roles in major scientific collaborations or observatories. Some professors might pivot into roles at national labs, observatories, or even data science positions in industry, leveraging their analytical and computational skills.
Conduct independent research, typically leading one or two small research projects. Teach core astrophysics courses and develop new curriculum content. Advise undergraduate students and initiate mentorship of graduate students. Participate in departmental committees and contribute to the academic community.
Establish an independent research program, secure initial external grants (e.g., NSF, NASA), and publish original research in top-tier journals. Develop effective teaching methods for undergraduate and graduate courses. Begin supervising graduate students and postdoctoral researchers. Build a professional network within the astrophysics community.
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View examplesAn Astrophysics Professor's role transcends national borders, driven by collaborative research and shared scientific goals. Global demand remains steady in academic and research institutions, particularly for specialists in emerging areas like gravitational waves or exoplanet research. Cultural differences impact teaching styles and research funding, while regulatory frameworks affect academic freedom. Professors seek international opportunities for access to unique observatories, diverse research teams, and varied funding sources. International fellowships and research grants often facilitate global mobility.
Salaries for Astrophysics Professors vary significantly by region and institution type. In North America, a typical Assistant Professor in the US earns $70,000-$90,000 USD annually, while a Full Professor at a top-tier university can reach $120,000-$180,000 USD. Canadian salaries are slightly lower, ranging from $65,000-$130,000 CAD ($48,000-$96,000 USD).
European salaries show considerable variation. In the UK, a Lecturer (Assistant Professor equivalent) might earn £45,000-£65,000 GBP ($57,000-$83,000 USD), with Full Professors earning £70,000-£100,000+ GBP ($89,000-$127,000+ USD). German W2/W3 Professors earn €60,000-€90,000+ EUR ($65,000-$98,000+ USD). Scandinavian countries offer competitive salaries, often with excellent social benefits, but higher costs of living. For instance, a Professor in Sweden might earn 55,000-75,000 SEK per month ($64,000-$87,000 USD annually).
Asia-Pacific salaries are competitive in established research hubs. In Australia, an Associate Professor earns AUD 120,000-150,000 ($79,000-$99,000 USD), while Japan offers JPY 8,000,000-12,000,000 ($54,000-$81,000 USD). Middle Eastern institutions, particularly in UAE or Saudi Arabia, often provide tax-free salaries ranging from $80,000-$150,000 USD, plus housing and travel allowances, significantly boosting purchasing power. Latin American salaries are generally lower, reflecting regional cost of living, with professors earning $30,000-$60,000 USD in countries like Brazil or Chile, though research grants can supplement income. International experience and a strong publication record usually lead to higher compensation globally.
International remote work for an Astrophysics Professor is limited due to the hands-on nature of teaching, lab supervision, and direct collaboration. While some research tasks, like data analysis or theoretical modeling, can be done remotely, most academic institutions require physical presence for core duties. Online courses and virtual conferences offer some flexibility, but these typically supplement, rather than replace, on-campus roles.
Digital nomad opportunities are rare for this specific role, as full-time academic positions demand residency. Tax implications for cross-border remote work are complex, involving dual taxation agreements and permanent establishment rules for the university. Some institutions may allow temporary remote work for specific research projects or sabbatical leaves. Equipment needs include high-performance computing and reliable internet access for large datasets. Overall, fully remote, international professorships remain uncommon, with most opportunities tied to specific institutional campuses.
Astrophysics Professors typically pursue skilled worker visas or specialized academic visas. Popular destinations like the US (H-1B, O-1), UK (Skilled Worker Visa), Canada (Express Entry), Germany (EU Blue Card), and Australia (Skilled Nominated Visa) have specific pathways. Requirements often include a Ph.D. in Astrophysics or a related field, a strong publication record, and an offer of employment from a recognized academic institution. Education credentials usually need evaluation for equivalency.
Visa timelines vary, from a few weeks for expedited cases to several months. Application processes involve submitting academic transcripts, research statements, letters of recommendation, and proof of financial stability. Many countries offer pathways to permanent residency or citizenship after a few years of continuous employment. English language proficiency tests (IELTS, TOEFL) are often required for non-native speakers, even in English-speaking countries. Some countries offer fast-track visas for highly skilled researchers. Family visas for spouses and dependents are generally available alongside the primary applicant's visa.
Understanding the current market realities for an astrophysics professorship is crucial for anyone pursuing this demanding career. The academic landscape has undergone significant shifts since 2023, influenced by post-pandemic budget adjustments and the accelerating integration of AI into research. These factors have reshaped hiring priorities and candidate expectations.
Broader economic conditions directly affect university endowments and research funding, which in turn dictate the number and type of faculty positions available. Market realities for professorships also vary dramatically by institution type, geographic region, and the specific subfield of astrophysics. This analysis provides an honest assessment to help aspiring professors navigate this highly competitive field.
Securing an astrophysics professorship is exceptionally difficult due to a severe imbalance between PhD graduates and available faculty positions. Intense competition at every career stage, from postdocs to junior faculty, drives this. Funding cuts for research and higher education further limit new hires, making departmental growth rare.
Many excellent candidates face prolonged periods in temporary research roles or must leave academia entirely. The market is saturated with highly qualified individuals, especially at the entry-level professorships, creating a bottleneck that can extend job searches for years.
Despite the challenges, niche areas within astrophysics offer stronger prospects. Roles focused on leveraging next-generation telescopes like the James Webb Space Telescope or upcoming ground-based observatories often see more dedicated searches. Expertise in large-scale data analysis, particularly with AI/ML applications to astrophysical datasets, provides a significant competitive edge.
Emerging opportunities exist in interdisciplinary fields combining astrophysics with data science, computational physics, or astrobiology. Universities increasingly value candidates who can bridge these areas and attract diverse funding. Smaller institutions or those in less traditional academic hubs might present less competitive environments, though these positions are still rare.
Developing a robust publication record, securing postdoctoral fellowships at leading institutions, and demonstrating success in grant writing are paramount. Cultivating strong teaching portfolios and mentoring experience also enhances a candidate's profile. Strategic career moves might involve pursuing research scientist roles outside traditional tenure tracks to build a strong independent research program before re-entering the professorial job market.
Hiring for astrophysics professorships remains extremely limited in 2025. Most universities prioritize replacing retiring faculty over creating new positions. Demand focuses heavily on candidates with established, externally funded research programs, particularly in areas like gravitational wave astronomy, exoplanetary science, and cosmology, which attract significant grant money.
The integration of AI and machine learning is increasingly vital, not as a replacement for theoretical or observational skills, but as a necessary tool for data analysis and simulation. Departments now seek candidates who can apply these computational methods to large datasets from new observatories. This reflects a shift towards more data-intensive astrophysics.
Economic conditions, including fluctuating endowments and state budget allocations, directly impact departmental hiring budgets. While remote research collaboration is common, professorial roles remain overwhelmingly on-site due to teaching and lab responsibilities. Salary trends for new faculty have remained relatively stagnant, reflecting the high supply of qualified candidates. Seasonal hiring patterns are strong, with most searches beginning in the fall and offers extended in spring.
The field of astrophysics is undergoing a profound transformation, driven by unprecedented advancements in observational technology, computational power, and theoretical frameworks. This evolution is creating entirely new specialization opportunities for astrophysics professors, moving beyond traditional subfields into highly interdisciplinary and data-intensive domains.
Early positioning in these emerging areas is crucial for career advancement from 2025 onwards. Such foresight allows professors to shape nascent research fields, secure significant grant funding, and attract top-tier graduate students, often leading to premium compensation and enhanced career growth. While established specializations remain vital for foundational knowledge, the cutting-edge offers unique avenues for impact.
Many emerging areas, particularly those at the intersection of astrophysics and machine learning or big data, are rapidly maturing. They are expected to generate a significant number of job opportunities within the next five to ten years as university departments adapt their hiring to these new demands. Pursuing these specializations involves a calculated risk, as not all nascent fields achieve widespread adoption. However, the potential rewards—pioneering new discoveries and shaping the future of the discipline—are substantial for those who commit strategically.
The era of gravitational wave astronomy has opened an entirely new window into the universe, detecting phenomena like black hole mergers and neutron star collisions. Astrophysics professors specializing in multi-messenger astronomy integrate data from gravitational waves, electromagnetic radiation across the spectrum, neutrinos, and cosmic rays. This field is crucial for understanding extreme astrophysical events and probing fundamental physics under conditions unreachable by terrestrial experiments, requiring sophisticated data fusion and interpretation.
As astronomical datasets grow exponentially in size and complexity, traditional analysis methods are insufficient. Astrophysics professors in astroinformatics develop and apply advanced machine learning algorithms, artificial intelligence, and big data analytics techniques to extract insights from massive astronomical surveys, simulations, and observational archives. This specialization is vital for discovering subtle patterns, classifying celestial objects, and accelerating scientific discovery from petabytes of cosmic data.
The search for exoplanets and the characterization of their atmospheres is central to understanding planetary formation and the potential for life beyond Earth. Professors in exoplanetology and astrobiology focus on developing models of planetary atmospheres, interpreting spectroscopic data from next-generation telescopes like JWST, and exploring the conditions necessary for habitability. This field bridges astrophysics with planetary science, chemistry, and biology to address profound questions about our place in the cosmos.
Cosmology is increasingly reliant on highly detailed simulations that model the evolution of the universe from the Big Bang to the present, incorporating dark matter, dark energy, and baryonic matter. Astrophysics professors specializing in computational cosmology develop and run these complex simulations on supercomputers, comparing their outputs with observational data to refine cosmological models and test theories of fundamental physics. This area is critical for understanding the large-scale structure of the universe.
Quantum phenomena are increasingly relevant in astrophysics, from the interior of neutron stars to the early universe and the development of quantum-enhanced astronomical instrumentation. Astrophysics professors focusing on quantum astrophysics explore quantum gravity, quantum field theory in curved spacetime, and the application of quantum information science to astrophysical problems. This cutting-edge field seeks to reconcile quantum mechanics with general relativity and develop new observational techniques.
Understanding the full scope of a career, encompassing both its appealing aspects and its inherent difficulties, is crucial for making informed decisions. The experience of an astrophysics professor, like any profession, varies significantly based on the specific university, the department's culture, the professor's research specialization, and their individual career stage. What one person perceives as a benefit, another might see as a drawback, depending on personal values and lifestyle priorities. For instance, the demand for continuous learning might be a 'pro' for an intellectually curious individual but a 'con' for someone seeking a more predictable routine. This assessment aims to provide a realistic overview, helping aspiring astrophysics professors set appropriate expectations for the intellectual rigor, daily responsibilities, and long-term trajectory of this demanding yet rewarding academic path.
Aspiring Astrophysics Professors often face unique challenges in balancing demanding research with effective teaching and securing limited academic positions. This section addresses critical questions about the extensive educational path, intense competition for tenure-track roles, and the realities of work-life integration in academia.
Becoming an Astrophysics Professor typically requires 10-15 years of post-secondary education and experience. This includes a 4-year bachelor's degree, followed by a 5-7 year Ph.D. program in Astrophysics or a related field. After the Ph.D., most individuals complete 2-5 years of postdoctoral research positions before even applying for faculty roles. Securing a tenure-track position can take additional years due to high competition.
The job market for Astrophysics Professors is highly competitive, with significantly more Ph.D. graduates than available tenure-track positions. Many Ph.D. holders pursue careers in data science, engineering, or other research-intensive fields outside academia. Success requires an outstanding research record, strong teaching abilities, effective networking, and often, a degree of luck in timing and institutional needs.
Initial salaries for Assistant Professors in Astrophysics at universities can range from $70,000 to $100,000 annually, depending on the institution type and location. As professors advance to Associate and Full Professor, salaries can increase significantly, often reaching $120,000 to $180,000 or more at well-funded research universities. These figures do not include potential summer salary from grants or consulting.
Work-life balance for an Astrophysics Professor can be challenging, particularly during the pre-tenure period. The role demands significant time for research, grant writing, teaching, student mentorship, and departmental service. While there can be flexibility in daily schedules, the overall workload often extends beyond traditional 40-hour weeks, including evenings and weekends, especially when deadlines or major research projects are underway. Summer months often involve intensive research and travel for conferences.
While a Ph.D. is almost universally required, the specific undergraduate major can be flexible. Many successful Astrophysics Professors majored in Physics, Astronomy, or Mathematics. A strong foundation in physics and advanced mathematics is crucial. Some individuals with degrees in engineering or computer science who have a strong interest and background in astrophysics can also pursue this path, often requiring additional coursework in core physics during their graduate studies.
Career growth for an Astrophysics Professor involves progressing from Assistant to Associate and then Full Professor, often with tenure being a significant milestone. Beyond rank, growth means building a reputation as a leading researcher, securing substantial grants, mentoring successful Ph.D. students, and taking on leadership roles within the department or broader scientific community. Some professors also transition into administrative roles within the university.
Securing research funding is a continuous and demanding aspect of being an Astrophysics Professor. Most research-intensive universities expect professors to fund their research, including graduate student stipends, equipment, and travel, through competitive grants from agencies like NASA, NSF, or private foundations. This involves constant grant writing, managing budgets, and reporting on progress. Failure to secure grants can significantly impact research output and career progression.
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Assess your readinessLead multiple research projects, often involving interdisciplinary collaborations. Secure substantial external funding to support a research group. Teach advanced graduate-level courses and develop specialized seminars. Serve on university-wide committees and contribute to professional societies.
Expand research impact through a sustained publication record and securing larger, more competitive grants. Demonstrate leadership in research collaborations. Mentor multiple graduate students to successful completion and advise postdoctoral researchers. Take on more significant departmental and university service roles.
Direct a significant research program with numerous graduate students and postdocs. Lead national or international research collaborations and consortia. Teach advanced seminars and potentially develop new graduate programs. Serve as a leader on key departmental or university committees, contributing to strategic planning.
Achieve national and international recognition for groundbreaking research and significant contributions to the field. Secure major research grants and lead large-scale scientific initiatives. Develop a strong reputation as a thought leader and mentor. Provide substantial service to the university and the broader scientific community.
Drive innovative research that fundamentally changes understanding within astrophysics, often leading multi-institutional or international projects. Influence national science policy and funding priorities. Serve on editorial boards of major journals or lead international scientific organizations.
Achieve exceptional international renown for transformative research and profound impact on the field of astrophysics. Influence the direction of scientific inquiry through highly cited work and leadership in major scientific endeavors. Mentor the next generation of leaders in the field.
Hold a named, endowed position, providing significant resources for research, teaching, and mentorship. Lead major research centers or institutes. Serve as a prominent ambassador for the university and the field, attracting significant external funding and partnerships.
Utilize endowed funds to pursue ambitious, long-term research projects and foster interdisciplinary collaboration. Recruit and support top-tier talent, including graduate students and postdocs. Shape the future of astrophysics through visionary leadership and significant philanthropic impact.
Learn from experienced Astrophysics Professors who are actively working in the field. See their roles, skills, and insights.
Physicist skilled in experimental and computational research, data analysis, and collaborative problem-solving.
Physics graduate student specializing in computational physics and data-driven astrophysical analysis.
Aspiring physicist pursuing a BSc, experienced in outreach, astrophotography, and STEM education.
PhD student applying ML to exoplanet detection and time-series analysis.
Kenya35k-60k USD
Data visualization, astrophysical modeling, computational simulations
